Religion represented in Dante, Petrarch, and Machiavelli

Dante Alighieri’s portrait by Sandro Botticelli, 1495, Portrait of Petrarch by Florentine School, Portrait Of Niccolo Machiavelli By Santi Di Tito A

Religion is mentioned in the works of Dante Alighieri, Francesco Petrarca, and Niccolò Machiavelli. Religion is the belief in a God or Gods by a group of people. During the time of Machiavelli and Dante, there was religious and political unrest. Dante lived during the conflict between the pope and emperors. People who backed the pope are known as Guelphs, whereas those who backed the emperor are known as Ghibelline. Petrarch was a Christian who was religious. In their writings, Dante, Machiavelli, and Petrarca all portray religion in different ways.

The concept of Dante’s “The Divine Comedy” is deeply religious. It discusses inferno, paradisio, and purgatorio, which are all aspects of the Christian afterlife. Sinners are punished by God in Dante’s inferno with a penalty according to their sin. This is called contrapasso. This is how he constructs the good versus evil narrative in his work. Evil is punished and good is praised. For example in canto 25 of inferno, the souls of thieves are being punished by having their physical form merge into a serpent. Dante writes that “At the end of his words the thief raised his hands with both the figs, crying: “Take them, God, I’m aiming at you!” From then on snakes have been my friends, because one of them wrapped itself around his neck…”( Canto 25, line ). This shows that Dante is in agreement with the justice that is displayed to the sinners. The line “From then on snakes have been my friends” suggests that Dante thinks the sinners deserved to be punished. This also shows the use of contrapasso. Since the thief stole other people’s belongings, they are punished by taking the only thing they have left, their human form. Furthermore, canto 5 also shows how evil gets punished. In this canto, the spirit Francesca had an affair with her husband’s brother Paolo. Her husband kills both of them. They both weep as the story is being told. Their punishment is an “infernal whirlwind, which never rests, drives the spirits before it’s violence..”. Their sin was lust. This punishment was formed to leave them in their passion as their in the wind forever. Dante feels bad for them as they tell the story. This demonstrates that, while they had a love for each other, they still did something wrong. They must be punished for it.

Petrarca’s Il Canzoniere depicts his struggle with devotion to God. Throughout his sonnets, he sees God as someone to be followed. Petrarch, unlike Dante, does not feel that love is a good thing. He regards it as a distraction from his devotion to God. His account of his sentiments for Laura demonstrates the conflict between love and God. He believes that other possessions are a distraction as well. In canzone 81, Petrarch writes that “ I am weary under the ancient burden of my sins and evil ways, That I fear I shall faint beside the road and fall into the hands of my enemy”(paragraph 1). This line expresses Petrarch’s fear of straying away from God and “fall into the hands of my enemy”. He’s worried that his old sins will ruin his reputation with God. He is so consumed with being good that he is constantly distressed about making a mistake. Furthermore, he sees his love for Laura as something that can threaten salvation. For example, in canzone 264, Petrarch expresses his pity for loving Laura so much. He states “I’m always thinking, and I’m caught in thought by such abundant pity for myself that often I am led to weeping for a different kind of grief:” (paragraph 1). This shows Petrarch reflecting on how his love may have cost him. He is in agony over it.

Religion is not taken as seriously in Machiavelli’s “The Prince” as it is in Dante’s and Petrarch’s works. He advises leaders not to adhere to religion but asserts that it is beneficial to their appearance. Machiavelli was not a religious man and even criticized it. He believes that it is important to be immoral and violent when it’s necessary. For example, in chapter 11, Machiavelli states that “It only remains now to speak of ecclesiastical principalities, touching which, because they are acquired either by capacity or good fortune, and they can be held without either, for they are sustained by the ancient ordinance of religion, which are so all-powerful” (paragraph 1). This displays Machiavelli’s sarcastic tone towards religion by referring to it as “which are so all-powerful”. He doesn’t believe that they can effectively defend their states with the rules of religion. He thinks that ecclesiastical principalities cannot defend. In religion, morality is too important. This morality can influence the ruler’s decision in negative ways.

 Dante, Petrarch, and Machiavelli all have different perspectives on religion. Dante and Petrarch share the same belief in the importance of following God. Petrarch shows more of his struggles with God than Dante. Machiavelli does not place the same value on religion because it is ineffective for ruling. Machiavelli places very little value on the benefits of religion. How does he feel about the community being religious? Can Machiavelli and Dante relate to the corruption in religion since they were born in Florence? Dante has written other works in reference to God and religion. He’s focused on the unpredictableness of God in Il Convivio, De Monarchia, and the “Letter to Can Grande.” 

Marciano, Lisa. “‘Our God Is a God of Surprises’: The Mystery of God in Dante’s Writings.” Christianity & literature 68.4 (2019): 580–604. Web.

Dante Alighieri, Dante et al. The Divine Comedy of Dante Alighieri: Inferno. Cary: Oxford University Press USA – OSO, 1996. Print.

https://www.gutenberg.org/files/1232/1232-h/1232-h.htm#pref01

Petrarca, Francesco, 1304-1374. Petrarch’s Canzoniere in the English Renaissance. Amsterdam ; New York :Rodopi, 2005.

Verità e Satira

Niccolò Macchiavelli, Santi di Tito

È sempre stato difficile per me prendere Il Principe di Machiavelli come una guida per essere un dittatore, rendendo il suo nome sinonimo di ipocrisia, malevolenza, comportamento immorale in generale (482). L’articolo di Garrett Mattingly, ¨Prince¨: Political Science or Political Satire? di Machiavelli, pubblicato nel 1958, esplora proprio questo. Quanto era serio Machiavelli quando ha presentato l’argomento per benevolenza contro l’agire spietosa-mente? In tutta onestà, è molto serio su questo. Tuttavia il fatto più importante di Machiavelli è che lui è stato il primo ad affrontare i fattori realistici di un governo con successo, come ha ritenuto opportuno durante la sua epoca. La domanda che Mattingly pone è come una persona che ha esperienza diretta di governo, come Machiavelli, potrebbe scrivere un libro che evidenzi un modo così estremo di gestire un principato come il modo corretto? Come afferma Mattingly, non è mai stato inteso come una guida strategica, ma più che altro come satira politica.
Un punto cruciale sollevato da Mattingly è il modo in cui Il Prince come opera riesce a mettere in ombra ogni altra pubblicazione machiavellica. Nella sua carriera, Machiavelli ha pubblicato molte opere in cui è chiaro che preferisce una repubblica piuttosto che un principato, ¨so serious a stumbling block. The notion that this little book was meant as a serious, scientific treatise on government contradicts everything we know about Machiavelli’s life, his writings, and about the history of his time. ¨ (484). In Il Principe s’apprezza come Machiavelli mette in mostra la questione italiana, che non è poi così diversa dall’epoca di Dante, dove c’è una Firenze costantemente tirata in due direzioni diverse da guelfi e ghibellini allo stesso tempo. Al tempo di Machiavelli, quasi duecento anni dopo, l’Italia è ancora afflitta da fazioni rivali, il papato, gli spagnoli nel sud ei francesi nel nord. Gli esempi che Machiavelli mette in evidenza nel Principe sono tratti dal periodo classico e dalla sua epoca contemporanea. In un momento in cui essere eccessivamente etici di solito ti vede intrappolato negli affari di qualcun altro. Lui lascia da parte le solite battute moralistiche su come un re dovrebbe comportarsi, e va dritto al punto come afferma nella sua dedica a Lorenzo il Magnifico ¨La quale opera io non ho onorata né ripiena di clausule ample o di parole ampullose e magnifiche, o di qualunque altro lenocinio o ornamento estrinseco con il qualei molti sogliono le loro cose descrivere et ornare; perché io ho voluto, o che veruna cosa la onori, o che soltanto la verità della materia e la gravità del subietto la facci grata.¨ (5) Fu Johan Gottfried Herder a dichiarare Il Principe né una satira né una guida iniqua per lo studio della politica. Machiavelli offre una visione oggettiva della politica italiana del cinquecento, fornita da un patriota al servizio del suo paese, che fece per facilitare il destino dell’unificazione italiana. (483).
Un tema ricorrente in tutto Il Principe è l’idea che uno stato forte otterrà senza dubbio il rispetto dei suoi vicini. Questo fatto vale in ambito regionale, nel senso che sono pilastri di forza tra le altre città-stato, e su scala internazionale tenendo duro contro la costante presenza spagnola e francese. Dando un’altra occhiata alla storia di Firenze fino a quel momento, ebbero sempre difficoltà a mantenere detto rispetto nella loro regione a causa dell’abbandono della loro forza militare, che in passato ebbe le sue conseguenze. Durante il suo periodo nella seconda cancelleria, Machiavelli ha sollevato il punto ¨Other people learn from the perils of their neighbors, you will not even learn from your own or trust yourselves, nor recognize the time you are losing and have lost. I tell you fortune will not alter the sentence it has pronounced unless you alter your behavior.¨ (485). In questo caso, Machiavelli sembra implorare con insistenza Firenze di imparare dai suoi errori passati mentre era in una repubblica in modo che la città-stato aiutasse a guidare l’Italia nel suo destino d’unificazione. Il sogno di uno stato italiano unificato è sempre stato l’obiettivo di Machiavelli e in questo senso trattare la situazione con ingenuità non era più un’opzione sostenibile.
A differenza del suo predecessore omonimo, Machiavelli dedica Il Principe all’attuale Lorenzo de’ Medici, che aveva meno esperienza nella guida di una città-stato. Aggiungendo l’idea che Machiavelli preferisca una repubblica al principato, sono propenso a pensare che questo libro intenda aiutare Lorenzo tanto quanto espone prematuramente al popolo fiorentino le possibili intenzioni del nuovo principe. Mattingly afferma che Machiavelli ¨was delicately aware of the tastes and probable reactions of his public. No one could have written that magnificent satiric soliloquy on Fra Timotheo in Mandragola, for instance, who had not an instinctive feeling for the response of an audience. ¨ (486). In questo senso Machiavelli scrive aspettandosi la reazione dei suoi lettori. Si può dedurre che scrive con l’intenzione di esporre ogni possibile azione che Lorenzo potrebbe intraprendere, facendo sapere al suo pubblico quale di queste azioni deve essere consentita e quale dovrebbe causare ulteriori indagini. Se questo nuovo principe dovesse intraprendere azioni che assicurino la stabilità fiorentina, dovrebbe essere consentito poiché ciò alla fine assicurerebbe il destino dell’unificazione italiana. Ma nella strana possibilità che Lorenzo abusi del suo potere nei molti modi mostrati in questo manuale, il popolo saprebbe esattamente quali sarebbero i segni rivelatori, e quindi ha anche gli strumenti adeguati per la loro difesa tanto quanto Lorenzo.
Per concludere, è insondabile che una mente come quella di Machiavelli sarebbe stata su un unico filo di pensiero quando scriveva Il principe. A mio avviso è più facile accettare un libro che affronti molteplici sfaccettature della realtà italiana del suo tempo, ovvero: l’Italia che è governata da città-stato dove le loro famiglie comandanti gestiscono gli stati come tiranni, rivelando come questi aristocratici arrivano al potere alla gente comune, e allo stesso tempo mettendo in fuoco la soluzione alle pretese apparentemente infinite che francesi e spagnoli hanno sulla penisola italiana.

Fonti:

Mattingly, Garrett. “Machiavelli’s ‘Prince’: Political Science or Political Satire?” The American Scholar, vol. 27, no. 4, The Phi Beta Kappa Society, 1958, pp. 482–91, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41208453.


Machiavelli, Niccolò. ¨Il Principe¨, Ali Ribelli Edizioni 2020.

Cruelty in The Prince

See the source image
by: R Solow. A picture of the fox and lion Machiavelli uses to describe when it’s necessary to be cruel.

In Machiavelli’s The Prince, he mentions countless themes and topics such as free will, cruelty, and virtue. Machiavelli believes that cruelty should be advised only in instances where it’s necessary. His views were more clearly shown in chapters 8 and 17. In chapter 8 he advises the prince against injuring his peasants on a regular basis, as this will make him loathed. Instead, he must only be cruel when it is absolutely essential to avert worse wrongdoing. In The Prince, it wasn’t a matter of whether cruelty was wrong or not it was a matter of whether it is used well or not. In Chapter 17 he mentions the instances where being cruel is necessary. In Chapter 17 he states, “You must know there are two ways of contesting, the one by the law, the other by force; the first method is proper to men, the second to beasts; but because the first is frequently not sufficient, it is necessary to have recourse to the second. Therefore it is necessary for a prince to understand how to avail himself of the beast and the man.” In this Machiavelli basically shows his view on cruelty, he believes that the amount and severity depend on the person and situation you are dealing with. In his metaphor when dealing with someone who is a snare you must act like a fox, and for those who are wolves, you must act like a lion. The more power the person has the more necessary cruelty is.  

Pericoli dell´Estremismo

Niccolò Macchiavelli, Santi di Tito

Penso che sbagliamo nel giudicare Machiavelli come l’estremista immorale che conosciamo. Dopo aver fatto parte della Seconda Signoria di Firenze come consigliere, ha solo approfondito la sua comprensione di come funziona la politica. Nella maggior parte dei casi, Machiavelli offre consigli realistici su come un leader dovrebbe agire e pensare. La crudezza dell’esempio nel confrontare Oliverotto da Fermo e Agatocle di Siracusa mostra una certa mancanza di empatia per la vita umana. In tutta onestà, in nessun punto Machiavelli invoca la violenza; si limita a presentare che è comunemente noto che il modo più efficace per conquistare uno stato passa attraverso la violenza necessaria. Gli esempi nel capitolo 8 mostrano il sorpasso attraverso l’inganno. Solo una cosa li separa l’uno dall’altro, l’uso corretto e l’uso scorretto della violenza. Oliverotto, come Agatocle, inganna i capi di stato e li uccide. Questa prima mossa è quella che Machiavelli chiama violenza necessaria. Oliverotto abusa della violenza perché continua i suoi atti violenti e alla fine viene ucciso da Cesare Borgia. D’altra parte, Agatocle governò con successo Siracusa molto tempo dopo aver comandato l’omicidio del senato siracusano perché si era astenuto dal commettere atti inutili. Oliverotto diventa così l’esito negativo se un principe usa misure estreme per troppo tempo o troppo spesso.

Morals in ‘The Prince’

A portrait of Machiavelli

“The Prince” is a text by Machiavelli, an Italian poet, philosopher and diplomat. This text has a common theme of morality amongst the chapters. It often discusses the role that the prince must take on, along with what he should and shouldn’t be doing. Machiavelli spoke a lot about the dichotomy between sticking to one’s morals and doing what helps them stay in power; he states that the prince should be doing things to his own accord, whether it’s good or bad.  For example, in Chapter  15, Machiavelli states that “it is necessary for a prince wishing to hold his own to know how to do wrong, and to make use of it or not according to necessity.” He says this because he believes that the prince should take all precautions when it comes to gaining and maintaining any power. Machiavelli also discusses how the prince needs to have a balance between acting like a man and acting like a beast. He states that there are two methods for this, “the first method is proper to men, the second to beasts; but because the first is frequently not sufficient, it is necessary to have recourse to the second. Therefore it is necessary for a prince to understand how to avail himself of the beast and the man”. In chapter 18, he explains that this is necessary because if men were good, then there would be no need to consider being bad, however,“because they are bad, and will not keep faith with you, you too are not bound to observe it with them”.

Fortune In The Prince

Raging River Photograph by Janet Kopper
One of the images that Machiavelli places in our heads as fortune; which is that fortune is like a raging river, representing bad fortune

Early in “The Prince”, we see that Machiavelli believes that personal ability is very important, determining how well they can rule. In chapter 5, he talks about those who have risen the ranks through their own ability, and those who haven’t, rising through fortune. “where there is a new prince, more or less difficulty is found in keeping them, accordingly as there is more or less ability in him who has acquired the state”. With those who have risen only through fortune, Machiavelli believes that they will have difficulty keeping that power. Machiavelli talks more about fortune later on, and more on why fortune shouldn’t be relied on too much.

In chapter 25, Machiavelli uses a river to describe fortune. He talks how fortune can be a raging river that floods the plains and sweeps away anything in its path, but “when the weather becomes fair… their force be neither so unrestrained nor so dangerous.”. Later in the chapter, he talks about the prince determining their actions based off their circumstances; and how if their actions are not suited for the situation, they will not succeed. If their fortune is like a “raging river” and do not react properly, they will not succeed, and may even end up losing their power. Machiavelli believes that fortune is the first half of what your actions are, and that the other half is your free will, or what can be seen as your own ability. The prince’s ability to react to their fortune will determine whether or not they will successful.

Virtue in “The Prince”

Pope Alexander the Sixth, who Machiavelli mentions in chapter 18 of “The Prince” as someone who “never did what he said”.

One of the core themes of Machiavelli’s “The Prince” is that of virtue. In particular, “The Prince” stresses how important it is for a leader to appear to be virtuous. This is exemplified in chapter 18 especially, as seen in the quote “Therefore it is unnecessary for a prince to have all the good qualities I have enumerated, but it is very necessary to appear to have them”. In this passage, Machiavelli focuses on the balance between a leader’s appearance and his actions. He believes that in order to secure his power, a leader must appear to have various virtuous qualities (some of these qualities include being “merciful, faithful, humane, religious, upright”) to his subjects, but he also needs to be prepared to act the opposite way if the time calls for it. Machiavelli even uses Alexander the Sixth, who “did nothing else but deceive men, nor ever thought of doing otherwise”, as an example of someone who mastered the art of deceiving people with his image. 

To help the reader better understand this concept, Machiavelli uses a simile in the first paragraph, as seen in the quote “ A prince, therefore, being compelled knowingly to adopt the beast, ought to choose the fox and the lion…Therefore, it is necessary to be a fox to discover the snares and a lion to terrify the wolves”. In this quote, Machiavelli likens a leader’s behavior to that of both a fox and a lion (which represent a balance of intelligence and violence), and when a leader must adjust his behavior according to the circumstances. This particular chapter of “The Prince” is interesting because Machiavelli takes a different approach to the concept virtue than most would expect; While most people believe that a leader should be purely good and only exhibit humane traits, such as being merciful, Machiavelli acknowledges that this is unrealistic if a leader wants to maintain his power. Instead, he presents his opinion that actually being virtuous and having good qualities isn’t as important as appearing to have them, and that a leader’s behavior should be able to “turn itself accordingly as the winds and variations of fortune force it”.

The Prince: Cynicism

A painting of Hannibal and his army on the wall of the Capitoline Museum, Rome.

A painting of Hannibal and his army on the wall of the Capitoline Museum, Rome. In The Prince, Machiavelli praises Hannibal and the cruel tactics that he used to keep his enormous army together.

In hopes of obtaining the good graces of Lorenzo Medici, Machiavelli constructed a treatise that advised rulers how to secure and maintain power. Rooted in Machiavelli’s ideas was a poor impression of humanity and justifications for the unvirtuous acts that leaders may take. In chapter 17, he famously writes that “it is much safer to be feared than loved” if you cannot be both because men are “ungrateful, fickle, false, cowardly, [and] covetous.” All of these descriptions stem from a belief that people are inherently evil and motivated by self-interest. Furthermore, he uses this to say that a good leader should be equipped to fall back on their honesty and act immorally if they must. Therefore, in his mind, it is a good thing to “appear merciful, faithful, humane, religious, [and] upright,” while also being fully prepared to do the opposite at any given time.

Destiny/Fate in The Prince

In The Prince, Machiavelli uses very vivid examples and descriptions to support his point of view on how actions and destiny determine a prince’s success. In chapter 25, destiny refers to circumstances that are currently happening, which is not always in the prince’s control. Instead of taking the route that you should not work toward a particular outcome because all events are controlled by destiny, Machiavelli’s point of view in this chapter is that only half of human’s actions are controlled by destiny, and the rest is free will. Machiavelli believes that destiny is a set of circumstances that can lead to success or failure. He uses a river flood as a metaphor, stating that if the Italian princes had more suitable preparations, the “flood” of foreign invitations would not have swept over the unprotected country. Machiavelli implies that virtue is a natural quality that a prince cannot change, therefore if a prince is trying to change their actions to suit the time, they most likely will not because it is not in their nature. Machiavelli’s use of the word destiny was very notable because of the way it led to the rest of the story. When Lady Fortuna was mentioned, Machiavelli said that it is important to treat destiny like the woman she is and approach her with boldness.

War/Violence

In “The Prince”, Machiavelli believes that good laws and good rulers are derived naturally from a good military. He talks about the topic of war as an almost necessary thing to go through for the development of countries. Machiavelli insinuates that successful countries/rulers are built upon their success in wars. Machiavelli’s description of war touches on more than just the direct use of military force. When he talks about war, he touches on different topics such as, tactical strategy, prowess, geographic mastery, etc. Alongside wars is obviously violence, and Machiavelli talks about that tremendously in the Prince. He discusses ways to become a successful prince, using violence (chapter 8), and then goes on to give an example. He mentions the military commander, and Greek tyrant of Syracuse, Agathocles. In order to become a ruler, he called the leading citizens and the Senate together for a meeting, and then proceeded to massacre them. To Machiavelli, Cruel and evil acts could be justified when done (but not repeated) to establish a prince’s power and to benefit his subjects.